#History of World Civilization, Day Twenty

The Roman Empire

How did the struggle between patricians and plebeians influence the development of the Roman Republic?

The early Roman Republic recognized a sharp class distinction, reckoned by birth, between patricians, or the wealthy ruling class, and plebeians, the ordinary folk. Patricians held more power in Roman assemblies, despite being outnumbered by plebeians, since a patrician’s vote counted more than a plebeian’s did. By coordinated effort, the patricians could attain a voting majority on any issue, regardless of plebeian votes. Originally, plebeians were not allowed to be priests, which were offices of significant religious and political influence. The plebeians felt justifiably marginalized. By 494 BC, they had had enough and plebeian soldiers refused to march against the Italic tribes with which Rome was at war. This began a period known as the Conflict of the Orders, as the plebeians sought political equality. Over a period of more than 200 years, they gradually gained additional rights, including the right to hold political offices, which granted them access to the Roman Senate. In 367 BC, a law was passed allowing plebeians to hold the consulship, a two-person office that was the highest political office in the Republic. In 342 BC, the Genucian law required that at least one of the consuls be a plebeian. By the end of the Conflict, being a patrician was mostly and honorary title. Despite this seeming gain in political power for the ordinary citizen, the practical effect was that a few plebeian families gained additional wealth and power, dominating the elected offices, while most plebeians remained ordinary, second-class citizens with little influence. Intentionally or not, they had simply created a parallel plebeian aristocracy, often no less wealthy than the patricians. This situation would remain until the revolution of Julius Caesar in 49 BC, when he ignited a civil war by marching his army across the Rubicon River (even in modern times, to “cross the Rubicon” means “to pass a point of no return”). Caesar’s victory ended the Roman Republic and founded the Roman Empire.

What were the repercussions of Rome's foreign conquests for the internal development of the Republic?

At its height, Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean Basin, Anatolia, most of modern day Western Europe, the Balkans, and about half of modern Britain. Rome needed to develop communication and trade routes to manage its far-flung holdings, and Roman road building is legendary. Strong, disciplined armies kept the peace. They also built a strong navy to protect the sea-lanes traders used to crisscross the Mediterranean Sea, which was essentially Lake Rome. Internal strife arose between the ruling aristocracy, known as patricians, and the (supposed) representatives of the common people, known as plebeians. It took a few hundred years, but the plebeians eventually achieved political equality.

The assimilation of diverse conquered ethnic and religious groups into Roman culture was eased by generous and lenient policies imposed by the Romans. As long as they paid their taxes and did not ally with Rome’s enemies, local groups were allowed great leeway in managing their affairs. Roman desire for order and justice led to the codification of Roman law, including concepts still practiced in the modern world, such as the right to a trial before a judge, and presumption of the innocence of the accused. Excellent roads also helped Rome achieve efficient taxation of outlying areas, which made Rome extremely wealthy. Unfortunately, this wealth exacerbated the problem of class differences, and Rome gradually discovered that a strong central administration could impose its will upon its lands easier than a representative republic. The republic died of impotence and the Roman Empire was born.

What were the economic and social changes brought about by the growth of the Roman Empire?

Economically, Rome became extremely wealthy. The Mediterranean Sea was effectively a Roman lake, through which uncountable tons of goods passed between all parts of the Mediterranean Basin. Ports along these coasts connected traders to further networks of land-based trade routes. Roman roads were the finest of the classical world, and they bore huge caravans of traders laden with the silks of China and spices of India and Southeast Asia headed west, and metals, grain, olive oil, wine, textiles and a host of other products headed east. Rome collected an Emperor’s ransom of taxes in this cornucopia. Private merchants also prospered as new markets opened ready to receive their wares. A strong military presence maintained the Pax Romana (Peace of Rome), making travel safer and more reliable, which reduced the risk of long distance transportation and the cost of doing business. Religious and political ideas spread as their evangelists travelled from one end of the empire to the other.

Unfortunately, this vast trade network was not without its downsides. Rapidly growing wealth created a rapidly growing gap between the wealthy elites and the common folk, although unlike China, many of Rome’s “peasants” were still Roman citizens, and even those of humble means enjoyed a standard of living a Chinese peasant would have considered positively decadent. Unequal distribution of wealth also meant unequal distribution of political power, even in an ostensibly representative republic. Bitter political battles ensued between aristocratic patricians and elected commoners (plebeians), resulting in hundreds of years of political conflict that gradually levelled the playing field somewhat.

Traders also carried unseen and uninvited guest with them, as well. Various communicable diseases at different times spread like wildfire amongst previously unexposed populations without natural immunities, who were defenseless against these invisible invaders. Epidemics raged, decimating whole villages, and leading to a significant decline in the population of the empire. Fewer people mean less trade, and less trade means less tax revenue. The wealth of Rome attracted other, more visible invaders, too. The Visigoths began making inroads in the Balkans. Rome’s once mighty military was increasingly reliant on foreign mercenaries and pacified tribes to supplement its highly trained, highly disciplined legions. The problem with mercenaries is they are, well, mercenaries, and not only were they militarily inferior to Roman legionaries, but those who can be bought can be bought again by someone else. The quality of Rome’s armies declined, beginning an irreversible trend of defeats that eventually cost Rome most of its territorial empire.

#History of World Civilization, Day Nineteen

Greek Religion

Briefly describe Greek religion. What role did the Greek religious cults play in Greek society, and what were the leading cults?

Like almost all ancient cultures, the Greeks had a pantheon of dozens of deities. Primitive cultures simply deified the forces of nature because they did not understand them. The Greeks believed the earth formed spontaneously out of a primordial chaos. The earth then formed the sky and other forces of nature. The gods were created by these forces of nature and then procreated amongst themselves, producing lesser deities along family lines, much as humans do. Their highest god (though he was not an omnipotent, supreme god such as would be found in monotheism) was Zeus, the grandson of the union of the earth and sky, and the ultimate victor of a period of great warfare amongst the original gods. In addition to nature gods, they ascribed ideas to the gods, such as Apollo, the god of wisdom and justice.

Man has an innate desire for order, and like most ancient religions, their pantheon was an attempt to make sense of the world around them. Each polis had a patron god to which its citizens were devoted, developing their own rites and practices that bound the citizens together with a common tradition. Early observances were hyperactive, sometimes frenetic affairs, working worshippers into a highly emotional state, not unlike modern ecstasy religions. About the fifth century BC, the Greeks developed a new, calmer, more rational type of religious expression: the morality play. Through two primary plot devices -tragedy and comedy- playwrights sought to promote thoughtful reflection upon complex human emotions and interaction. The morality play is a time-tested art form, even in modern times. Twentieth century television shows such as “Star Trek” and “M*A*S*H” have been described as modern interpretations of classical morality plays. One episode of “Star Trek” even had the crew of the Starship Enterprise encounter the Greek god Apollo, finding him to be a member of a race of highly advanced alien beings that once visited earth at the time of the rise of Ancient Greece, whose citizens mistook them for gods.

The strengthening of the Hellenistic empires diminished polis-centered worship in favor of cultural and philosophical distinctions to address their devotees’ felt needs. These groups reflected the Greeks’ increasing reliance on human reasoning to explain life and nature. Three main schools of thought dominated Greek religious expression at this time. Epicureans sought to escape worldly pressures and find peace in pleasure, the satisfaction of having one’s needs met and being content with what they had. The Skeptics did not believe it was possible to have sufficient knowledge to draw hard and fast distinctions in politics, social issues, or morality, and thus held themselves aloof from the fray. The leading thinkers in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, however, were the Stoics. Rather than shrinking from the complex issues of a cosmopolitan society, they taught that the highest course of man was to assist his fellow man, and maintain an honorable and virtuous lifestyle in accordance with human reasoning and the natural world.

#History of World Civilization, Day Eighteen

Greek Trade and Culture

Greek society depended heavily on trade. Who did they trade with and what were the commodities they traded? What was the impact of this trade?

The stony, mountainous terrain of the Greek peninsula does not lend itself to large, open fields of staple grains ancient Greece needed to feed its burgeoning population. It is ideal, however, for vineyards and olive groves, which cannot be grown in the hot, dry climes of the contemporary classical empires. Their nautical skills and abundant access to the sea made ship-borne trade a natural and profitable enterprise. Greek ships bearing coveted wine and olive oil made port at virtually every trading center in the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black seas. They found ready markets in Egypt, where they found grain, vegetables, textiles, and African slaves. Anatolian and Syrian ports gave them access to greater supplies of grain, as well as the Indian spices and Chinese silks that had traveled west across the Persian Empire. The Black Sea in particular gave them access to more slaves, captured in southern Russia. Colonies along the Italian coast produced an abundance of copper, tin, iron, and zinc.

With no way to grow enough staple crops to feed its people adequately, Greece could not have reached the population levels it enjoyed without imported foodstuffs. Sophisticated Greek shipbuilding gave its trading partners the ability to ship greater quantities of goods, making trading more cost-effective and profitable. Unlike many other cultures, the Greek colonists remained loyal to their gods, culture, and philosophy, and proselytized Greek civilization throughout the classical world.

What were the major cultural contributions of classical Greece? Why are the Greeks still considered the cornerstone of the Western intellectual tradition?

Greek culture and philosophy can summed up in the word “humanism.” They saw everything from a human-centered point of view. Even their gods were more like special humans than superior, wholly different entities. The Greek philosophers were amongst the first thinkers to seek to understand the world from a strictly rational perspective that could be adequately understood and described by human reasoning. It was the foundation of what we now call the “scientific method.” Its emphasis was on observation, examination, reflection, and deductive reasoning. It was during this time that man first began to seek understanding by truly postulating, theorizing, and experimenting with the world around him. Adapting the Phoenician alphabet by adding vowel sounds, they created an extremely versatile writing system that enabled writers to communicate ideas more easily and clearly than any civilization to that time. They were exceptionally good students of other cultures’ understanding of science, astronomy, medicine, mathematics, geometry, and architecture. Although Greeks practiced chattel slavery, unlike many other societies, it was possible for skilled slaves could rise above their condition, gaining their freedom, attaining prominent positions, even be granted citizenship.

Greek philosophy was the foundation of what we now call the “scientific method.” The idea that man could observe and understand himself and the world around him originated with the great Athenian philosophers. They replaced the superstitious idea that the world was governed by capricious, often illogical and vindictive, deities. Although they retained pantheism, they conceived of the gods in human form, rather than humans being the imperfect creation of the gods. The Greek gods were subject to many of the same failings and foibles as humans, and Greek mythology, literature, and drama reflected these themes.

#History of World Civilization, Day Seventeen

Philip and Alexander

Describe the impact of Philip of Macedon and his son, Alexander the Great.

Few father-son relationships have had as significant an impact on the civilized world as Philip II of Macedon and his son, Alexander III, whom history would brand Alexander the Great. The greatest rulers of the Argead Dynasty, a tribe that formed in the area of the polis of Argos in Southern Greece, history would revere their names indefinitely. Philip ascended to the Macedonian throne upon the death of his older brothers, Alexander II and Perdiccas. His military skills were legendary; however, he was also a skilled diplomat. By this combination of shrewd military preparation and diplomacy, he consolidated his rule of Macedon with devastating military victories over the Athenians and the Illyrians in 359-358 BC. He is credited with the invention of the Greek phalanx, a formidable infantry formation using tight ranks of highly disciplined soldiers armed with the sarissa, a 4 to 7 meter, iron-tipped wooden spear. Once the phalanx began advancing toward an opposing formation, it was virtually unstoppable.

For all this skill, however, Philip’s reign was relatively short on the world stage. He was assassinated in 336 BC by one of his own bodyguards, Pausanias. Historians differ over Pausanias’ motive, but at the time, Aristotle seems to indicate it may have been a personal offense by a member of Philip’s family. Later accounts paint a much more sordid picture, even involving Alexander himself in a wide conspiracy, though most scholars deem this unlikely.

In any event, Philip’s death elevated Alexander at the age of twenty to the throne of an already powerful kingdom boasting perhaps the world’s most formidable military. Alexander was already known for his tactical brilliance and personal fearlessness from his exploits as Philip’s regent during the elder’s absence on various military campaigns, putting down multiple rebellions and repulsing an Illyrian invasion. The aggressive, less diplomatic Alexander consolidated his hold on the Macedonian throne by ruthlessly eliminating potential rivals. Securely in command of the throne, he turned his attention to an expansive vision of Macedonian dominance. After quelling multiple revolts in the Balkans, he advanced into Asia. Passing through Central Anatolia, he paused at Gordium, the Phrygian capital, “solving” the previously unsolvable Gordian Knot, which prophesy held could only be untied by the future king of Asia. Not one to waste time or effort, legend holds Alexander simply hacked the knot in two with his sword.

By both siege and battle, he systematically conquered Ionia and Syria, decisively defeating the Persian Emperor Darius at Issus when Darius ignominiously fled the battle. Proceeding down the Levant, Alexander conquered Egypt, founding the ancient city of Alexandria, one of the most prosperous and cosmopolitan cities of the classical world.

Turning east, he advanced on Mesopotamia, again encountering the armies of Darius, defeating the Persians when Darius again fled at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. Alexander marched across Persia, capturing and looting the ancient capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, until Darius was captured and killed by one of his own kinsmen in Bactria, thus ending the Achaemenid Empire.

Founding cities, always named Alexandria, throughout the region of modern-day Afghanistan, Alexander had designs upon the Indian subcontinent. After years of unrelenting campaign, however, his army had had enough, and refused to go any further. Thus, the empire of Alexander, at its height, stretched from Greece to the Hyphasis River in Northern India.

Accounts of Alexander’s death in June 323 BC mostly center on poison and intrigue, common elements of Macedonian history. Various natural illnesses have also been proposed as likely causes. Whatever the circumstances, Alexander’s death at the age of 32 was sudden and shocking. His greatest attribute was tactical wizardry, not administrative prowess, and he left no great design to govern his enormous conquests. Although at his death he ruled an empire from Europe to India, it was fragmented into three parts, none of which was able to withstand the Roman conquest. The last, the Seleucid Empire, succumbed to the Roman ruler Pompey the great in 63 BC. Alexander’s legend, however, survives as arguably the most successful military leader of all time, and his tactics and strategy are still studied by modern military leaders.

#History of World Civilization, Day Sixteen

Ancient Greece

Describe the nature and functioning of the polis. What were its positive and negative consequences?

Polis is the term used for the typical settlement built by the Greek civilization. Grecian government was organized at the local level into sovereign city-states. The polis was usually ruled by a proto-democratic assembly of its adult male citizens. A typical polis would consist of a walled city with a citadel, marketplace, temples, and other public buildings. Citizenship was reckoned by birth, and only adult males enjoyed full voting and legal rights. A polis was more than simply the area enclosed by the city walls, and included both the surrounding area (suburbs) and any colonies established by the citizens of that polis, however geographically distant they may have been. The independent nature of the polis made direct democracy possible, and the polis generally reflected the will of the majority of its citizens. Being autonomous, however, each polis was only as strong as its body of citizen soldiers to defend itself, which left it open to conquest by more powerful and ambitious neighbors and foreign invaders. Poleis occasionally allied themselves together for mutual defense, but the independent spirit of the populace made such alliances difficult and prone to squabbles. Some poleis vied for control of their regions, and at various times Sparta, Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and others were each the dominant force in the Greek peninsula.

Compare and contrast the Greek city-states of Sparta and Athens.

Sparta and Athens were both powerful city-states on the Greek peninsula, and both had their time in the sun dominating Greek culture. That is about where the comparison ends, as the politics, people, and philosophy of the two poleis were quite different. They were allies in the fight against the invading Persians, but their mutual ambitions to control the Greek mainland eventually came to blows in the Peloponnesean War of the late fifth century BC.

Spartan life was ascetic and militaristic, so much so that even in modern times, “spartan” means basic, minimal, devoid of luxury, etc. All men trained for war from age seven, and even women underwent a physical training regimen. All citizens, men and women, were trained to be disciplined and strong, and women enjoyed rights in Sparta seen nowhere else in the classical world. Spartan training was harsh, even brutal. Soldiers were intentionally given short rations to keep them hungry and encourage them to “be resourceful” (steal).

If Sparta was the hyper-militant survivalist with anger management issues, Athens was the laid back, freethinking hippie. Athens was the center of culture, the arts, education, and philosophy in the classical world. Athens took its name from its mythological patron goddess, Athena, the Greek goddess of many things to do with wisdom, knowledge, art, philosophy, etc. Athens was the birthplace of Western Civilization and political democracy. Almost all of the most revered Greek philosophers, historians, poets, and physicians were from Athens. Its access to the sea led to the development of a powerful navy, and a thriving, prosperous trade network. Despite the emphasis on education and philosophy, Athens boasted a formidable army, equipped similarly to the Spartans, and an even more powerful navy, while the nearly landlocked Sparta had almost none.

Why did the Greeks establish colonies throughout the Mediterranean world? Describe the significance of Greek colonization.

One of the foremost reasons for Greek colonization was overcrowding. The rocky, mountainous Greek peninsula made agriculture difficult, with the notable exception of grapes and olives, which do not provide a diet sufficient to support a large population. Greeks quickly discovered that other civilizations had plenty of grain to trade for their coveted wine and olive oil, and colonies facilitated this trade network.

There was no concerted, coordinated effort at Greek colonization. Rather, individual, autonomous poleis would send off members to establish trade outposts, retaining the culture and character of, and loyalty to, their mother poleis. As the Greeks fanned out, rarely venturing very far inland but dotting every available coastline with colonies, they carried their culture, philosophy, and religion with them, interacting with trading parties from all over the known world. Greece seems to be one of the most cohesive cultures of the ancient world. Their diaspora was as far-reaching and omni-directional as any previous civilization, yet their colonies remained identifiabely Grecian. While other civilizations intermarried with the native peoples upon whom they encroached, creating new, hybrid cultures, the Greeks heavily influenced their new lands, leaving the imprint we still call “Western Civilization” everywhere they went.

#History of World Civilization, Day Fifteen

Early Mediterranean Civilizations

Who were the Minoans? Who were the Mycenaeans? How were the Mycenaeans influenced by the Minoans?

The Minoans were a civilization that developed on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea. Archaeological evidence indicates they arose in the mid-fourth millennium BC, and reached their zenith from the mid-third to mid-second millennia BC. They were named for the mythical Aegean god-king Minos, who was associated with the Cretan city of Knossos. They were known to be builders of great, multi-story palaces. They were amongst the earliest sailors, traders, and colonizers of the Mediterranean Basin.

The Mycenaean culture arose about 1600 BC as the first advanced civilization on the Greek mainland. They are named after their most prominent city, Mycenae, which lay about 50 miles southwest of Athens. It dominated Greek culture on the Peloponnesus for about 500 years from the mid-to-late second millennium BC. Around 1200 BC, the Mycenaeans came into conflict with the Anatolian city of Troy in what became known as the Trojan War. This is the basis for the great epics of Homer, the Odyssey and the Iliad, though modern scholars doubt a single writer named Homer ever existed, and that the events described in the epics were largely mythologized. For a time, scholars doubted the war, or the even the city of Troy ever existed until 19th century German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann’s excavations in the modern day Turkey lent credence to the historicity of the city.

It is thought the Mycenaeans acquired much of their knowledge of building and architecture from the Minoans, with whom they had a thriving trade and cultural intercourse. Evidence of Minoan craftworks has been found on the Greek mainland, indicating that trade between Minoan artisans and Mycenaean olive and grape growers was strong. Mycenaeans borrowed significantly from the Minoan script known as Linear A, an as yet undeciphered form of Minoan glyphs, adapting it to their unique language. Around the mid-fifteenth century BC, the Minoan culture suffered some sort of catastrophic natural event, the specifics of which are not known, likely an earthquake or volcanic eruption. Minoan culture experienced a significant decline, and by 1420 BC, the Mycenaeans controlled the former Minoan sites on Crete. Mycenaeans are thought to have adapted many Minoan cultural, religious, and political ideas, rather than imposing a different order on their newly conquered lands, so the Mycenaean population on Crete bore a distinctive Minoan imprint.

#History of World Civilization, Day Fourteen

Zoroastrianism

What were the basic teachings of Zoroastrianism? Why is it considered a highly moralistic religion? How did Zoroastrianism influence other religions?

Zoroastrianism is a religious system that arose in ancient Persia sometime in the early second millennium BC. It is a monotheistic philosophy, believing in a single, creator god named Ahura Mazda. It was developed by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in reaction to the pagan, polytheistic religions on the ancient Indo-Iranians, and their rituals of animal sacrifice and the use of mind-altering substances. Zoroaster taught that only Ahura Mazda was worthy of worship, and any other seeming “deities” were evil spirits, servants of Angra Mainyu, the evil counterpart, or opposite of Ahura Mazda in a somewhat dualistic belief. Ahura Mazda rules his creation according to universal laws, the Daena, which is good, ordered, and perfect. Anything against the Daena is, by definition, evil, disorder, chaos, etc. Mortal beings must actively support the Daena by the three basic tenets of Zoroastrianism: Good Deeds, Good Thoughts, and Good Words. Humans are expected to participate actively in the battle between good and evil by observing the three tenets.

Since all Zoroastrian practice is focused on the actions, words, and thoughts of a person, moral uprightness is the paramount goal, and any failure of such is disorder, decay, chaos, etc. It is considered moralistic for its emphasis on good human behavior. Each person is directly responsible for his or her moral choices, and must actively make good moral choices. More than simply refraining from evil, they must not fail to do acts of good. To fail to do good deeds is to choose and empower evil. Earthly pleasures are allowed, so long as they are indulged in moderation and not by defrauding another.

Zoroastrians believe that creation will one day be remade by Ahura Mazda, in the final destruction of Angra Mainyu. All human beings, even those whose souls were cast into darkness for moral failure in life, will be joined with Ahura Mazda in a new, perfect world, free of defect. Scholars believe Christian eschatology recorded in the New Testament book of The Revelation was heavily influenced by this “new earth” concept, and the idea that the morally corrupt will be cast out into darkness. Christian concepts of fallen angels, or demons, resemble Zoroastrian beliefs of evil spirits as servants of Angra Mainyu. Islam eventually supplanted Zoroastrianism, but its emphasis on rituals, rules, and a strict code of conduct may have Zoroastrian roots. The Zoroastrian concept of Daena is closely related to the Buddhist concept of Dharma, and is often translated as such in Hindu.

#History of World Civilization, Day Thirteen

Agriculture and Trade in Persia

What agricultural technologies and techniques did the Persians use to produce the large surpluses they needed to feed their huge population of nonfood producers?

One of the most successful and revolutionary agricultural technologies introduced by the Persians was the qanat. Essentially an underground pipeline, the qanat was a sloped tunnel with vertical shafts at intervals to move water from an aquifer to a city or agricultural field. Much of the land of the area occupied by modern Iran is arid and unsuitable to agriculture without irrigation. The qanat was an improvement on the irrigation canal by reducing water loss due to evaporation, and making it harder to block or divert. The modern Iranian city of Gonabad still uses a qanat built around the eighth century BC. Although not the first to discover it, the Achaemenids introduced cotton to Persia, where it grows well in the arid, somewhat poor soils, given sufficient irrigation at the proper stage of cultivation. Cotton became an important trade commodity to the centrally located Persians.

The Persian Empires were noted for being part of a trade route critical to the economy of the classical world. What did the rulers do to facilitate trade? Why was Persia geographically so important?

The Achaemenid Empire was instrumental in building and improving the road system that facilitated the relatively easy transport of trade goods through its vast geographic area. The centralized government of Persia provided the political stability, well-constructed roads, and a peacekeeping military presence that made travel across the Empire safer, easier, and faster. They built inns at intervals along these highways to serve the needs of both traders and their own traveling administrators. Commercial shipping along the Arabian, Mediterranean, and Black Sea coasts flourished as the world’s first true imperial navy provided security, and the Empire built great seaports from the Balkans to the Arabian Sea. Uniform taxation made the cost of doing business more predictable, encouraging investment in long distance commercial expeditions. Although coinage existed in the Lydian empire before the Achaemenid conquest, the Persian Emperor Darius I instituted one of the most widely circulated coins of the classical world, the Daric. Archaeologists have found gold Daric coins as far away as Italy.

Being centrally located between China, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent to the east, and Africa, Egypt, the Mediterranean, Anatolia/Ionia and Greece in the west, traders that wished to travel overland between the great civilizations at the extremes of the then-known world had little choice but to cross the Achaemenid Empire. Greek exports such as olive oil, metalwork, wines, and pottery, and Egyptian glass, cotton, grain, and vegetables moved east, while Chinese silks and porcelain and Indian spices moved west. Various regional foodstuffs moved both directions, while the Persians exported semi-precious stones, cotton, grain, and prized woven carpets. At the height of the Achaemenid Empire, it was the clearinghouse of the ancient world.

#History of World Civilization, Day Twelve

World Civilization Tour, Day Twelve

Darius the Great

Why does the textbook say that Darius was "more important as an administrator than as a conqueror"?

The geographic footprint of the Achaemenid Empire was already quite large by the time Darius I ascended to the throne in 522 BC. Although he put down many rebellions, extended his borders east to the Indus River, and successfully reconquered the city of Thrace, his economic and cultural reforms led the Achaemenid Empire to its height of power under his rule. He reorganized the satrapies, implemented a new, standardized monetary system, and decreed that Aramaic would be the official language of the entire empire. He standardized laws, while allowing a measure of autonomy and local control, checked by a strong military presence and centralized policy-making. He directly appointed Persian satraps, but allowed them to utilize mostly local appointees in other, subordinate positions of administration, giving the diverse ethnic and cultural groups of his empire the sense that their voice and concerns would be heard in government, rather than suffering under a foreigner, ignorant of their history and customs, blindly imposing his will upon them. While a fervent adherent of, or at least believer in, Ahura Mazda (historians disagree about whether or not he was a devout Zoroastrian), he allowed a remarkable level of religious tolerance. He instituted a uniform, predictable system of taxation. People could plan better knowing when and how much tribute would be expected of them, as opposed to the irregular, sometimes onerous levies of his predecessors. He built and improved roads throughout the Empire, and created an early form of postal system not unlike the Pony Express of the American West over two millennia later. The time it took news and information to reach the Emperor from the farthest reaches of his realm, and for imperial decrees to be disseminated, decreased dramatically. Trade flourished under the economic standardization and political stability of Darius’ reign.

Militarily, he was less successful, suffering a legendary defeat at the hands of the Athenians in the Battle of Marathon, and ending his chances of annexing Greece. He did, however, successfully subjugate Macedon and a small number of Greek Islands. His economic, political, and cultural expertise distinguished him among Achaemenid rulers, however.

In what ways did Darius, and his successors, promote communication and commerce throughout the empire?

The Achaemenid emperors improved the lives of their subjects in several important ways, not the least of which was political stability on an immense scale. They built great networks of good roads, reducing travel times, and increasing comfort and safety for travelers, traders, government officials, and facilitating the rapid deployment of military forces. Darius developed a message relaying system utilizing waystations with fresh horses at given intervals, making communication exponentially faster and more reliable. Darius decreed that Aramaic be adopted as the official language of the empire, which made communication between diverse and far-flung ethnic groups easier. The imperial daric became the standard coinage of the Empire, making collection of taxes easier and more efficient, and encouraging trade, both within imperial borders and as a currency of recognized value in other lands. They built massive public works projects, temples, mausoleums, and irrigation systems that made formerly dry lands productive, and built canals, underground waterways, and a strong commercial fleet and navy. Standardized laws and currency made banking possible, and merchants and financiers profited from an increase in investment and the availability of credit.

#History of World Civilization, Day Eleven

World Civilization Tour, Day Eleven

Empires of Persia

How did Cyrus manage to expand the Persian holdings so dramatically during his lifetime?

Cyrus II of Persia, also known as Cyrus the Great and Cyrus the Achaemenid, was born in the early sixth century BC in Anshan, Persia (modern day southwestern Iran). He is credited with founding the Achaemenid Empire, sometimes called the New Persian Empire, the First Persian Empire, or the Medo-Persian Empire. Cyrus reckoned his empire as the successor to the reign of Achaemenes, the (perhaps mythical) king of Persis who is believed to have ruled in the late eighth and early seventh centuries BC. Cyrus greatly expanded the empire from the footprint of Achaemenes, eventually ruling an area from the Balkans to the Indus Valley. His first accomplishment was a successful rebellion against the Median Empire ca. 550 BC. Following his victory, he spared the life of the Median king and married his daughter, thus pacifying several of the lesser Median territories. Cyrus was known as a master military tactician, which helped the empire conquer the Lydian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, as well. Military conquest was a primary factor in the Achaemenid Empire’s rapid expansion.

Perhaps more than a conqueror, however, Cyrus was known as a great administrator and the first ruler of the ancient territory to attempt to understand and incorporate the diverse ethnic and cultural societies he conquered. After conquering Babylon, Cyrus allowed the captive Jews to return to their homeland, and the Hebrew Tanakh refers to Cyrus as “The Lord’s Messiah” (chosen one).

Cyrus built a political infrastructure that standardized administration of his massive empire, while styling himself as their “liberator,” rather than their “conqueror.” The efficient and stable political environment allowed trade to flourish and the areas he ruled largely prospered under Achaemenid administration. He appointed Persian satraps, or governors, but allowed them to employ local ethnic officials to oversee administration in their area, and allowed the satrapies a certain measure of autonomy. He also built a powerful, uniformly trained army that kept the peace. He allowed a remarkable (for the time) level of religious and personal freedom, and has been hailed by many scholars (deservedly or not) as one of the earliest champions of human rights. The administrative system he established provided substantial political stability to a massive geographical area for centuries to come.

#History of World Civilization, Day Ten

Dynastic China

What were the major achievements of the Qin and Han dynasties?

The Qin Dynasty was the first to unify China under a single, central government. They established a tradition of centralized government that dominated Chinese politics for thousands of years. The administrative state they imposed upon China brought political and economic stability and order, and encouraged investment and trade. They promoted economic development by standardizing laws, money, weights and measures, and building vast networks of roads and bridges to make travel and military movements easier. Most importantly, they imposed a standardized script that has lasted thousands of years, making cultural and linguistic differences communicable in a common written language. They employed thousands of impressed laborers in building defensive fortifications along the northern borders of their territory, a precursor to the massive Great Wall finished centuries later. They expanded their territory by subduing the nomadic tribes to the north and jungle tribes to the south. The Qin established the doctrine of Legalism as the dominant administrative philosophy of the empire, burning most contradictory literature and murdering thousands of scholars and critics.

The Han Dynasty arose after the fall of the Qin due to popular revolt. The peasant leader, Liu Pang, named the Dynasty after the Han River in his home province. While largely continuing the centralized administration of the Qin, the Han realized that the large, complex bureaucracy needed talented, educated administrators to function successfully. Although Legalist philosophy still guided the imperial court, Confucianism, suppressed under the Qin, became the dominant philosophy in education. The Han established China’s first University to recruit and train public servants. The Han Dynasty was an economically prosperous time in Chinese history, with agriculture, trade, and silk textiles flourishing. The Han extended Chinese influence to the west almost to Bactria (modern Afghanistan), and to the east onto the Korean peninsula. Advancements in iron metallurgy allowed the manufacture of better weapons, utensils, and farming implements. Paper was invented to replace bamboo and silk as a common writing medium. The oldest surviving piece of writing on paper in the world was found in a Han watchtower. The Han Dynasty was a time of great advancements in science, architecture, mathematics, engineering, and medicine. The ship rudder, seismometer, and three-dimensional maps were all invented or improved during the period of Han reign, as well as the use of negative numbers in mathematics. To finance the massive bureaucracy and military expansionism, the empire successfully nationalized salt and iron production. After about 200 years of rule, the Han suffered a brief period of usurpation by the Xin Dynasty, but reestablished itself about 16 years later and ruled China for another 200 years.

What were the reasons for the decline of the Han?

Rising wealth due to great agricultural success created a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Land ownership became concentrated in the hands of a few elite families, while the vast majority of citizens lived as peasants, often in miserable conditions. High taxes, military conscription, and income/lifestyle inequality fomented resentment amongst the lowest classes, while corruption and intrigue in the Imperial court angered societal elites, contributing to a turbulent series of rebellions. By the early second century AD, the empire had fractured into three warring factions, led by Cao Cao, Sun Quan, and Liu Bei. The constant battles for control of Emperor Xian and civil unrest amongst the peasantry eventually tore the empire apart, finally collapsing with the abdication of the throne by Xian to Cao Pi, son of Cao Cao, in December 220 AD.

#History of World Civilization, Day Nine

Confucianism

Describe the major beliefs associated with Confucianism. In what ways does Daoism contrast with Confucianism? Describe the doctrine of Legalism. How does Legalism differ from both Daoism and Confucianism?

Confucianism arose from the teachings of the philosopher Confucius, who was born around 551 BC. He grew up poor, but became a teacher by talent and intellect. He founded a philosophical system that attempted to bring order to the chaotic, warring times that embroiled China during that period of its history. He knew something was needed to provide cohesion to China’s far-flung, disparate states. He developed a system of thought that emphasized harmony in dealing with others and respect for tradition and one’s ancestors, theorizing that by putting what he termed “superior” people – conscientious, hardworking people of high ethical and moral behavior – in positions of power, they would rule the state in the best interests of the populace. The people would recognize this “leadership by example” and willingly follow. Confucianism is not a religion, per se, as it addresses moral behavior from a largely secular perspective, with little reference to spirituality or a higher power.

The first principle of Confucianism is kindness. This principle should govern both the public and private life of a man. All his dealings with his family, friends, business associates, and others should be handled with care, concern, and empathy.

Confucius promoted the idea of the “superior man,” the ideal to which all men should aspire. He is unselfish, generous, and a servant to others, rather than seeking to be served (although he was reputed to be somewhat ill tempered and hard to please). He is loyal, and always seeking what is best for others, trusting that other “superior men” will do the same for him.

He taught that there were five relationships within society that must be properly ordered and characterized by respect for society to prosper. Three are familial -parents to ancestors, children to parents, and relations amongst siblings, with respect and deference to elders at every level- as the family is the foundational unit of society. One addresses friendships, still stressing the hierarchy of elder and junior, as age bestows wisdom and deserves respect. The last is the relationship of government to the people. The government must function in the best interest of the people, and the people must respect governmental authority. In this, it is somewhat similar to the ideas expressed thousands of years later and halfway around the world in the American Declaration of Independence: legitimate government derives its “just powers from the consent of the governed.”

Peace will be achieved and maintained when society functions according to these principles. When everyone seeks harmony with his fellow man, peace perpetuates itself and society develops an appreciation of beauty and the creative arts.

Daoism (or Taoism) arose as a rival to Confucianism, rejecting Confucian emphasis on ritual and social hierarchy in favor of a more naturist and individualistic expression of harmonious relations with people and the world. Daoists shun the idea of changing society and seek individual tranquility through personal withdrawal and meditation. Daoism addresses spirituality, the nature of the universe, and how individuals relate and connect to this universal spirit, more so than the primarily humanist views of Confucianism.

Legalism came to prominence with the Qin Dynasty, and was more of a political/administrative philosophy than of religion and morality. Its adherents considered their views a more realistic assessment of human nature and how to keep the peace than Confucianism. As the name implies, it was based on rules, laws, and authoritative force to instruct the people how to behave, taking a dim view of human nature and the likelihood of voluntary compliance. Its three basic tenets were authority, methodology, and the rule of law. Obedience to the law was rewarded and violations were punished, often severely, and many times the whole family was subject to penalty for the transgressions of its members. By this means, the Qin did away with the feudal system that had ruled China for centuries and established a unified, centralized, bureaucratic state divided into thirty-six provinces. Although the sometimes-Draconian laws did not win the Legalists popularity –indeed, its two greatest champions were murdered at court by rivals- it established order and ended the chaos of the Period of Warring States, and brought real cultural and political unity to China for the first time. One of its greatest mandates was a standardized script for writing that largely survives today. While people still spoke different languages, they adapted to the common script, making cross-language written communication much easier.

Commentary on Selected Analects of Confucius The Master said, "Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application?”
1. I think this is saying it is a good thing to be always learning new things. If you stop learning, you stop growing, and if you stop growing, you start dying.
2. Obviously, I agree with this proverb. That’s why I’m taking this class, just for fun, just for the enjoyment of learning more about a subject that interests me.
3. The application I would make in my own life is examining whether I want to apply this philosophy to pursuing a master’s degree. Do I have the perseverance to stick it out, and will I be able to apply it to my life by becoming an instructor?

The Master said, "This man seldom speaks; when he does, he is sure to hit the point."
1. I think this means the person he is describing doesn’t run on at the mouth, filling the air with useless words. He is not too fond of the sound of his own voice, the type of person who is often wrong, but never in doubt. He doesn’t say much, but when he does, it’s worth hearing.
2. Yes, I agree with this proverb. I once knew a guy who simply had to dominate the conversation. No matter what we were talking about, he had done it before and was an expert. We figured either he had held over a thousand jobs and spent 15 minutes at each one, or he was 147 years old.
3. I am extremely introverted, and do not talk very much (hard to believe, I know, given how wordy I am in writing). This often frustrates my wife, who is very much an extrovert and loves banter. I like to think before I speak, and I write, read, edit, and rewrite my answers in this class many times before posting them. If I feel I can’t add something meaningful to the conversation, I won’t add anything at all. When I don’t know what to say, I don’t say it.

“Better to be silent and be thought a fool, than to speak and remove all doubt.” – Abraham Lincoln

“It takes a long time to say anything in old Entish, and we never say anything that isn’t worth taking a long time to say.” – Treebeard

The Master said, "The superior man is modest in his speech, but exceeds in his actions."
1. This reminds me of the saying in business, “Under-promise and over-deliver,” and many other clichés, like “actions speak louder than words,” and “let your actions speak for themselves.” Nevertheless, clichés don’t get to be clichés by being wrong. Don’t brag about what you can do, just do it, and do it well, then let other people brag on you.
2. By now, it should be obvious; I didn’t pick any proverbs I disagreed with. I saw a few I didn’t particularly ascribe to, but none I vehemently opposed.

3. Like the previous proverb, grandiose, voluminous speeches are not indicative of substance. At the dedication of the national cemetery at Gettysburg, Edward Everett spoke for two hours before Lincoln spoke for two minutes. However, while many can recite the Gettysburg Address, hardly anyone even knows who Edward Everett was. Everyone has listened to politicians spout lofty but empty promises, and inspiring but totally unrealistic predictions “If I am elected…” If you talk a big game about being a leader, but you turn around and no one is following, guess what? A leader doesn’t say, “Go there and do that.” A leader simply says, “Follow me,” and does what needs to be done.

“Those who say it can't be done are usually interrupted by others doing it.” – James A. Baldwin

#History of World Civilization, Day Eight

China

Describe the geography of China. How did the physical features of the land and waters in China influence the development of the culture?

Modern China is massive, covering some 3.7 million square miles, spanning five time zones (although the communist Chinese government mandates the use of one), with a diverse landscape of jungle, mountains, desert, and fertile river valleys. However, the dynasties and kingdoms that rose and fell in Ancient China covered much less territory than the modern communist nation. Still, its ancient footprint was surrounded by natural barriers that were difficult to traverse, allowing its civilization to develop from within rather than being heavily influenced by foreign cultures and massive migrations.

China is dominated by three primary rivers: the Yellow, the Yangtze, and the Hsi (or Xi). The Yellow River valley is particularly fertile, but prone to devastating floods (the floods of 1332-1333 AD killed an estimated seven million people). The intentional destruction of dikes, levees, and canals to flood rival lands was a common military tactic during the Period of the Warring States.

Agriculture, as in other parts of the world, developed first in the fertile valleys of these great rivers beginning in the mid-eighth millennium BC, creating pockets of population growth and cities. Although water is available in abundance, China does not possess the large, flat, arable lands found in western Asia, Egypt, and Africa, making planting and harvesting more difficult and labor intensive. Rice in particular often requires extensive earthworks and precise systems of levees and irrigation controls to create terraces of flat, floodable plots (no more than a 2” change in elevation between levees). Farming on any reasonable scale in China requires a sizable workforce. Distance, terrain, and competing ambitions made unification of large geographic areas difficult, and China’s history is a patchwork of great and lesser dynasties, feudal kingdoms, and violent conflict. Bordering deserts, lofty mountain ranges, and the Pacific Ocean largely shielded China from massive invasions, and limited trade and interaction with other cultures, creating a distinct Chinese culture, unique to the ancient world, with family and gender roles being its dominant characteristics.

China’s geographic isolation also largely prevented the incursion of outside religions. Neolithic ancestor worship and traditional folk religions were the nearly exclusive spiritual traditions of China for thousands of years until the formal development of Taoism in the fourth and third centuries BC. Despite the frequency of natural disasters associated with the great rivers (flooding and dramatic, unpredictable course changes), Chinese religion did not include the worship of the same types of pagan gods of nature found in Mesopotamia and the Near East. Confucianism was perhaps the most influential belief system aside from ancestor veneration, but is more of a secular ethical and moral code than a spiritual framework. Around the second century BC, during the Han Dynasty, Buddhism began to make inroads into China from India in the west, but it was heavily influenced by existing Chinese philosophy, creating a somewhat uniquely Chinese Buddhism. Christianity and Islam were relative latecomers in Chinese history, not arriving to any noticeable extent until the seventh century AD.

What was the "mandate of heaven" and how was it used to justify any seizure of the Chinese throne?

The “mandate of heaven” was a concept first employed by the Zhou Dynasty to justify the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty. Ancient Chinese believed that a wise and benevolent –but impersonal- “heaven” watched over mankind and periodically bestowed the mantle of leadership on a deserving individual (the Son of Heaven), one who would rule with wisdom and prudence in the best interests of his subjects. If he (and like almost everywhere else, China developed a patriarchal society) failed in his duties, ruling greedily or foolishly, this divine favor might be withdrawn, and the mantle bestowed upon a new leader. The people may recognize that the mandate has been (or should be) passed to another, more worthy man, and overthrow the disgraced ruler. Ruling wisely is sort of a vague standard, and can be taken to mean, “Not ruling like I would,” so it was easy for an ambitious man to claim to have received a divine revelation to overthrow the existing regime. If the newly bestowed man could gather sufficient forces to his side, he could create a self-fulfilling prophecy, claiming that his success was proof of his mandate. The mandate is somewhat similar to the “divine right of kings,” notably asserted by James I of England in the 17th century AD. However, English kings claimed that no earthly authority had the right to determine that the mantle had been passed, and any attempt to depose the king was considered sacrilegious and treasonous, at least by the king.

Describe the different social orders that developed during the first three dynasties.

Social order was distinct and family-oriented in Ancient China. At the top, of course, was the Emperor, followed by the most prominent members of his family. These were the rulers, the highest, most wealthy, most revered members of society. Next most prestigious were the families allied with the Emperor, often owners of immense estates and elaborate family compounds. Constant warfare created opportunities for military leaders to gain powerful and respected positions, so there was an elite class of professional warriors. The tremendous wealth of these classes made it possible for skilled artisans, craftsmen, and metallurgists to live comfortably on the patronage and voracious consumption of these societal elites, constituting a thriving middle class.

Far below these respectable classes was the great mass of the population; the nongfu (ordinary farmers), common laborers, and military fodder. They lived Spartan lives in primitive housing little better than was that of their Neolithic ancestors, working as sharecroppers for wealthy landowners, perhaps being given a small piece of land to work for themselves, though they were never given ownership. Work was divided according to gender roles, with women working primarily indoors and performing tasks like weaving, while men farmed, hunted, and fished to supplement the family’s food supply. Little removed on the scale from these poor souls were slaves, who were often captured soldiers and tribesmen from military conquests. They performed the backbreaking, manual labor, and worked on massive building projects that required a large workforce.

#History of World Civilization, Day Seven

India and Buddhism

What were the five major accomplishments of the [Indian] emperor Ashoka?

A. Ashoka conquered the kingdom of Kalinga, along the eastern coast of the Indian subcontinent, the last major holdout against his consolidation of power. This gave him control of the trade routes by sea and along the plains of the Ganges River. B. After seeing the suffering and death caused by the war with the Kalingas, Ashoka devoted himself to Buddhism and the desire to rule by good governance, rather than military might. He instituted a strong ruling bureaucracy that brought stability to the government of India. He established a central treasury in the city of Pataliputra, which efficiently oversaw the collection of taxes and supported the many officials the government required. This stimulated economic activity and created wealth. He built Buddhist monasteries and “stupas” – shrines containing important relics - and sponsored missionaries of the faith to far-flung lands. He recognized the value of a common religion to unite his culturally diverse and geographically sprawling domain. Whatever his motives, his reign was a largely prosperous time in Indian history. C. He promulgated laws and decrees by having them inscribed all across the land, so his subjects could know and understand government policy, and to encourage them to observe the tenets of Buddhism and conduct themselves in an orderly manner. D. He built tremendous irrigation systems that expanded the use and productivity of agriculture, a critical component of creating wealth, expanding trade, and supporting population growth. E. He promoted trade by building roads, including a single stretch of more than 1,000 miles, connecting Pataliputra with Taxila, giving trade caravans access to the western extremes of his empire and the exotic products and cultures of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and beyond. He created the ancient equivalent of the first “truck stops,” building inns, planting trees, and digging wells along this early form of “interstate highway,” for the comfort and safety of travelers, and to encourage trade.

What were Siddhartha Gautama's contributions to the development of Buddhism? How does Buddhism differ from Hinduism? What accounts for the popular appeal of Buddhism?

Siddhartha Gautama was born ca. 563 BC, the son of a minor tribal governor in the Himalayan foothills. As a member of the kKshatriya, he led a comfortable, sheltered young life, until he witnessed a man suffering the effects of age and infirmity. Shocked by the man’s suffering, he left his home and young family in search of an understanding of and relief from this suffering. He developed the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path after years of wandering, meditation, and reflection on life and human suffering. He thus founded Buddhism, and was the original Buddha. He taught that all suffering in life was a result of striving for power and happiness, neither of which will provide contentment. By mastering the self and conquering desire, one can attain “nirvana,” – similar to the Hindu moksha - peace with oneself and his or her fellow man/woman and release from the earthly cycle of reincarnation. Nirvana is available to all who obtain enlightenment, regardless of caste or status. He purposely avoided the use of Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas and the brahmin, believing that the brahmin used their knowledge of the original language to control access to the Vedas, and therefore maintain power and influence over the people. He believed his teachings should be accessible to common people in their own language. An interesting parallel appears centuries later, when reformers fought to translate the Christian Bible into English, breaking the control similarly held by the Catholic Church and its priests over the Latin scriptures.

Buddhism’s rejection of social distinctions differs markedly from Hinduism and its rigid caste system, with virtually impassible gulfs between castes. For the Hindu, the best one could do was to be a good member of his or her caste, following the Dharma –rules of behavior laid out in the many jati, or sublevels, of their caste. Buddhism offers the same opportunities to attain nirvana to all members of society, regardless of caste. This would have been especially popular with members of the lowest castes, for whom Hinduism offered no real hope of improving their lot in life except through reincarnation.

Buddhism benefited from the support of the lower castes, as well as those seeking a less complicated, demanding form of religion than the empty rituals of the brahmin. Its popularity was further expanded by the imperial support of Ashoka, who devoted himself to Buddhist teachings after witnessing the horrors of the war with the Kalingas. This presents another remarkable parallel to the official adoption of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine in about 312 AD. It seems history does, indeed, repeat itself.

Describe Mahayana Buddhism. How does it differ from Theravada Buddhism?

Mahayana Buddhism might be thought of as “liberal,” or “mainstream” Buddhism, and Theravada Buddhism as “conservative,” or “orthodox” Buddhism.

Mahayana literally means “the larger vehicle,” and thus describes more of a “big tent” philosophy regarding the practice of one’s religion. It recognizes many buddhas, not just Siddhartha Gautama as the one, true Buddha, and tolerates the concept of many roads to salvation. While monastic life is desirable, most people will not choose to live this way, and will not incur bad karma for not doing so. It embodies the “live and let live” philosophy. Each person finds his or her own way to enlightenment and oneness with the Brahman.

Theravada Buddhism - literally “the narrower vehicle - is the stricter, more rigid form of Buddhism. It believes the teachings of the Buddha to be the true guide for achieving nirvana, and as such, they must be scrupulously followed. It rejects the idea of many buddhas, worshiping Gautama as a god and the only Buddha, though Gautama never ascribed divinity to himself. Theravada believes all people who wish to attain nirvana should adopt an ascetic, monastic lifestyle. These are the “Buddha-thumpers,” insisting that their version of Buddhism is the true form, and believing that Mahayana Buddhists are misguided and can never hope to achieve nirvana. In reality, Theravada’s rigid requirements are only slightly less impossible to maintain than Jainism, even for cloistered monks, which made Theravada less popular in most of society, drawing only the most devoted followers.

#History of World Civilization, Day Six

India

How did the arrival of the Aryans in India change Indian culture? What did the Aryans bring to India?

Harappan society was already long in decline by the time the Aryans arrived. Their great cities lay abandoned and only scattered small cities remained by the time the majority of invading Aryans came riding over the mountains passes of Hindu Kush.

The Aryans gave that name to themselves, and since it means “noble people,” scholars can safely assume they did not have self-esteem issues. They were warriors and cattle herders, not sedentary farmers. For the absorbed Harappan remnants, life would have become more tribal, and probably more violent. The Aryans were organized in small bands led by a war chieftain (rajah). Governance, such as it was, was provided by a pair of tribal councils, together with the priests.

Two things they brought with them would have had an immediate impact: war chariots and bronze weapons. These would have outclassed anything any remaining Harappan defenders possessed. There is no evidence of large-scale destruction, so the Aryans appear to have had a relatively easy time establishing dominance over the area. They brought horses, which were highly prized in their culture, but do not breed well in the Indian climate. This meant they had to import horses from central Asia continually. They brought within their pantheon the warrior god Indra, and a religious system that required daily sacrifices to appease the gods of the forces of nature and elicit their favor. Like most pagan nature gods, they were capricious and demanding, and one could never really know whether they were pleased or angered, except by observing the sunny or stormy weather, similar to the accuracy with which modern meteorologists can forecast the weather.

Describe the origins of the caste system. What were the different castes, and what functions did they perform?

The caste is a system of social stratification used by cultures to differentiate amongst its people, often for the purpose of discrimination or exaltation. In Aryan culture, the caste system was based on four “varnas,” distinct social, religious, and occupational classes. The word itself means “appearance,” and may have originally been used by the Aryans, who described themselves as “wheat-colored,” to distinguish themselves racially from the darker indigenous people of the Indian subcontinent. Centuries of intermarriage would have eventually made this distinction irrelevant.

The highest varna was the brahmin, which was reserved for the priests. Kshatriya comprised the ruling class, administrators, and professional soldiers. Vaishya were artisans, merchants, farmers, and skilled, specialized laborers. Occupying the lowest varna were shudras, common laborers. A fifth, unnamed class was reserved for people who were shunned, considered outcasts and defiled, either by birth or by menial, grimy occupation, such as animal slaughterers and sewage workers. As warriors and herdsmen, the early Aryans had little need for a more complex social hierarchy.

Within each varna, people were further subdivided by birth and occupation. While there were only four varnas, there were many “jati” (literally meaning “birth,” used in a broader, occupational sense, as descendants tended to remain in the traditional trade of their forebears). The system of jatis grew more complex as specialized labor developed and new occupations began to appear, eventually recognizing thousands of separate jatis, each with its own Dharma, or code of conduct. While it was expected that one would be limited to and remain within one’s jati, some scholars note that intermarriage and some upward mobility were not entirely unheard of. The caste system, while promoting systemic discrimination, gave the somewhat decentralized Indian society a self-imposed stability and order that would typically be provided by a stronger sociopolitical structure. People knew what was expected of them, and for the most part were at least resigned, if not content, to live within these boundaries.

#History World Civilization, Day Five

World Civilization Tour, Day Five

The Harappan Civilization

Why is so little known about the Harappan society? What is it that we do know about the nature of that society?

Knowledge of the Harappan society is limited due to modern scholars’ unsuccessful efforts to decipher the complex symbols used in the surviving “writings” of the Harappans. Indeed, scholars cannot even agree whether the known symbols are merely stand-alone, nonlinguistic pictographs or constitute a consistent script.

The desert long ago reclaimed their cities, but archaeologists have uncovered much of two of their largest cities, Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro. Unfortunately, the oldest ruins lie beneath the modern-day water table, making them impossible to excavate. The ruins that have been unearthed have revealed complex, precisely planned cities with fortified citadels, public baths, advanced sewer systems and gravity-assisted water delivery systems. Housing is uniform in building materials and room sizes, indicating common design, but dwelling size varies, indicating differentiation in wealth and status among the citizenry. Archaeologists have found small, one-room, clustered huts and large, three-story houses with private courtyards. The cities boasted large granaries, indicating considerable surplus harvests and centralized collection and distribution. There is no evidence of a monarchy, but the exact nature of their political structure is unknown. The sheer size and uniformity within the cities, and the extensive public buildings and infrastructure indicate considerable planning and cooperation.

Excavations display a distinct paucity of weaponry among the ruins, and an abundance of children’s toys, giving rise to speculation that the society was predominantly peaceful and family-oriented. Perhaps they simply took the more important items with them when they abandoned the city, or later scavengers took only what they could make use of. In any event, something happened to disrupt the peaceful, agricultural life of Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro, perhaps drought, flooding, soil depletion, deforestation, disease, or changes in the course of the Ravi and Indus rivers.

#History of World Civilization, Day 4

Egypt

Why are Egypt and Nubia called "gifts of the Nile?"

Egypt and Nubia are called “gifts of the Nile” because the Nile River made both civilizations possible. Without the Nile running through that part of Africa, the fertile valley would have been a barren wasteland, unable to support even small settlements and rudimentary agriculture. The Nile is the source of life on that part of the continent, carrying both fresh water and fertile soil deposits. Mountain runoff from rainfall and melting snow courses down the river valley annually, irrigating and replenishing the parched land. Even today, the Nile Valley is a relatively narrow strip of green running through a monotonous tan landscape, with little else but sand for hundreds of miles to the west, and a rocky, inhospitable landscape between the river and the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea to the east.

How did the institution of the pharaoh evolve? What was the nature of the pharaoh's authority and power?

Ancient Egypt began as a series of small kingdoms situated along the northward-flowing Nile River from the first cataract (Upper Egypt) in the south to the sprawling river delta that spills into the Mediterranean Sea in the north (Lower Egypt). By about 3100 BC, a strong leader (Menes) finally united the kingdoms and instituted the idea that the pharaoh was a divine son of the god Horus, son of Osiris. The royal bloodline was closely guarded, with the typical genetic problems associated with inbreeding. Apparently, these physical abnormalities did not deter the Egyptians from worshipping the pharaoh, and recognizing his (or her; there were at least three female pharaohs) absolute rule. The land and everything on it, even the people, were his personal property, though most pharaohs regarded their citizens more as children than chattel. They lived in comfort and ruled by direct fiat through a complex bureaucracy. Though they had unquestioned authority, most attempted to rule in the best interests of their subjects.

Describe the most important features of ancient Egyptian society.

The most important feature of ancient Egypt was the Nile River, without which Egypt would never have existed. The Nile Valley forms the western end of the Fertile Crescent, a curved strip of land that includes the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates river valleys. These rivers made agriculture possible in an otherwise dry, mostly barren landscape. Egypt depended on the Nile for drinking water for its people and domesticated animals, fishing, and for the annual flooding of the Nile Delta to irrigate and replenish the soil, producing abundant crops. Water is the most basic essential for life, and the Nile provided it bountifully. Even in modern times, few major cities in Egypt are located outside the Nile Valley.

The strong, unquestioned leadership of the pharaohs supported a complex bureaucracy that made Egyptian life ordered and stable. Egyptians were a hardworking, serious people who followed the word of the pharaoh as divine. They took religion and the afterlife very seriously, believing that the best thing one could do in this life was to prepare a tomb for the next life. Their pantheon of gods and goddesses was overseen by Ra-Atum, the Sun god, which they believed was the source of all life and overseer of the universe. Egyptian mythology held that all pharaohs were descended from the god Horus, and a divine, or at least semi-divine, earthly representative of Ra.

The importance Egyptians placed on life after death can be seen in the elaborate tombs they built and the extensive (and expensive) process of mummification. A well-furnished tomb was a sign of wealth and prestige, and was sometimes bestowed by the pharaoh on his (or her) most highly regarded subjects. Since most Egyptians could not afford grand tombs or mummification, they had small statues of themselves made to take their place as the afterlife embodiment of their ka. Aside from the Great Sphinx, the purpose of which is not fully known, the greatest surviving monuments of the ancient world are the Great Pyramids in the enormous necropolis at Giza, the burial places of the greatest of the pharaohs, emphasizing their obsession with death and the afterlife. The tombs of Egypt are among the largest and most elaborate burial places of any known culture, ancient or modern.

#History of World Civilization, Day 3

World Civilization Tour, Day Three

The Hebrews and Their Neighbors

What new concepts did the Hebrew prophets bring to Hebrew religion? What was unique about Jewish belief?

The primary distinction of Judaism versus Mesopotamian religion is monotheism. The Hebrews believed in one, omnipotent, predictable, creator God, who could know, and be known by, individuals in a personal manner. This contrasted with the pantheon of pagan gods, who were capricious, unpredictable, moody, aloof, demanding, and limited in both authority and geography.

While requiring obedience, the Hebrew God promised blessings, and forgiveness of transgressions for the penitent. The Hebrew scriptures reveal the story of creation, the fall of man from an initial state of perfection and paradise, an explanation for the existence of evil, a special relationship with God (covenant) for both individual believers and the Hebrew race, a civil, moral, and religious code of behavior and ethics, and, as time went on, a written history of the world and their race.

They also introduced the concept of a “Messiah,” or savior, who will bring justice and peace to the righteous and punish evildoers. Personal responsibility, to God and one’s fellow man, was a key concept in Hebrew society. Believing that man was created in God’s image and for His purposes gave unique value to human life. Capital punishment was employed, but only for crimes against people, not property.

What do you believe were the most important aspects of the Mesopotamian world view?

I believe the most important aspects of the Mesopotamian worldview were their belief in honest and ethical dealings with others, and the interdependence necessary to create a robust agricultural society. The dynamics of living in a confined area with thousands of other people differ greatly from that of a small, independent, nomadic band of a few dozen related individuals. Greater interaction with larger numbers of individuals created more opportunities for conflict, and the accumulation of wealth made oppression of the “have-nots” by the “haves” inevitable.

As populations grew and fewer hands were required for farming, the brightest minds turned to the study of astronomy and mathematics, enhancing their understanding and measurement of time and seasons, resulting in a better knowledge of the best times for planting and harvesting, and making advanced building techniques possible. While my modern (and Christian) worldview often finds their polytheistic beliefs to be superstitious nonsense (modern man can be quite judgmental), it gave them a sense of accountability to something outside themselves in their lives and conduct.

Religion has often been a strong catalyst for advancements in art, communication, ethics, and the desire to keep a durable, sharable record of history, culture, and ritual, so in a sense, their religious beliefs helped make this class possible. Archaeology can provide a great deal of information about what an ancient society was doing, but a written record can reveal what they were thinking, providing a much deeper insight into who these people were and how they viewed themselves, others, and the world in which they lived.

#History of World Civilization, Day 2

World Civilization Tour, Day Two

Mesopotamia

How did the physical environment shape Mesopotamian civilization? As a result of this environment, what characteristics did Mesopotamia exhibit?

Situated between two great rivers, the Mesopotamians had two indispensable elements for the successful development of agriculture: abundant water and fertile soil. Much of what they accomplished in creating a relatively bountiful food supply would not have worked in poorer soil and a drier clime. Although regular flooding brought good soils, its unpredictability led to frequent disasters and lost crops. The development of levees and artificial irrigation made it possible to exert greater control over their environment, leading to greater and more stable crop yields. By stabilizing their food supply, they were free to devote time and effort to occupations other than subsistence: priests, soldiers, artisans, builders, etc.

Controlled irrigation and urban living made it necessary for members of the local society to work together on large-scale projects that benefited the whole group, like levees, dams, canals, temples, and defensive city walls. Private ownership of land and crops made the accumulation of wealth possible, leading to a stratified society. To keep order, and to ensure cooperation among inhabitants for the common good, laws were codified and enforced, such as the Code of Hammurabi. Various government officials and judges were needed to enforce justice, coordinate large-scale projects, secure the expected blessings (and avoid the expected curses) of the gods, long-range planning, and common defense against raiders and rivals.

What were some of the important inventions and technological contributions developed in Mesopotamia?

Probably the most important invention that arose in Mesopotamia was writing. Created in Sumer around 3000 BC, this cuneiform (meaning “wedge-shaped” for the way the marks were made with a pointed stylus in soft clay) was the earliest form of record keeping with consistent phonetic and grammatical rules. It enabled accurate historical records, the memorialization of business transactions and contracts, and the dissemination of laws and religious/cultural rituals. Historians disagree about who first invented the wheel, but the widespread use of wheeled carts appears in Mesopotamia around the fourth millennium BC. This enabled human and domesticated transport animals to carry much larger loads over much greater distances, and greatly enhanced long distance trade and cultural interchange.

Advancements in shipbuilding and water navigation further expanded these opportunities. Mesopotamians first discovered bronze by mixing copper and tin, making much stronger, more durable metal objects, and the Bronze Age saw great innovations in weapons, armor, and somewhat later, agricultural and artisan tools. They were among the first textile weavers, glassmakers, woodworkers, and potters. All of this was made possible by advances in farming through controlled irrigation and crop selection, leading to excess food supplies, which allowed the inhabitants to devote time and energy to these pursuits, rather than daily subsistence foraging.

#History of World Civilization, Day1

World Civilization Tour, Day One

I’ve decided to take a one-month break from the daily haikus to share some writings I recently submitted for a history class I took during the summer quarter at Chemeketa Community College. I love history, and took the class just for fun. I already have a bachelor’s degree, so the only payoff to the class was to learn, and I was surprised by the amount of material that was new to me. Or at least I didn’t remember most of it from taking college history classes the first time around.

All questions in bold are © 2015 by Mike Balyo, Instructor, Chemeketa Community College.

Therefore, without further ado, I introduce my whirlwind tour of World Civilization from Neolithic Society to the Middle Ages.

The Paleolithic Era and the Rise of Agriculture

Describe the basic features of a Paleolithic society. How did the emergence of agriculture contribute to the rise of civilization?

Paleolithic society was distinguished by the organizing of early humans into small bands, probably no larger than a few dozen people (likely extended family), for the purpose of hunting, fishing, and the gathering of edible plants for subsistence. They were nomadic, roaming in search of good hunting grounds, probably following the seasonal migration of herds and the ripening of fruits and berries. This made private ownership of goods and land, and therefore relative wealth, impossible. Indeed, the concept of land ownership would have been meaningless to them, as they never stayed in one place very long. They likely had no personal possessions beyond a few tools, weapons, clothing, and rudimentary jewelry.

There was no way to preserve food or gather a surplus, so everyone but the very young was involved in the activities of hunting and foraging daily. In Neolithic times, men were mostly hunters and women and children were gatherers. Hunting was dangerous and uncertain work.  The men likely came back empty-handed, if they came back at all, with some regularity.  If you’ve ever been hunting with a group of men, you’ll know things haven’t changed that much.  We still often come back to the fire at night with more tall tales than meat.  Neolithic men probably sat around the fire at night drinking beer and embellishing stories while everyone ate what the women had gathered that day. 

Life expectancy was likely no more than 50 or 60 at best and infant mortality was high. The old and infirm would have been handled with harsh pragmatism. Survival depended on everyone contributing their efforts, so distinctions among members of the groups were unlikely, beyond perhaps the best hunter or the eldest member being somewhat loosely regarded as a tribal leader, deciding where to go and when to stop, likely in concert with the other adult members.
The development of agriculture made it possible to stabilize their food source, making it advantageous to stay in one place longer. More durable shelters could be sought or built, making survival easier and more comfortable. Cultivated crops and domesticated animals produced a more abundant food supply, supporting larger populations in larger, more densely populated settlements, and allowing some people to devote effort to things other than subsistence, like potters, skilled tool/weapons makers, religious and civic leaders, craftsmen, and artisans. This meant groups could trade excess goods with other groups, receiving different foods and other items that were scarce locally, but abundant in other places. A more diverse diet would have been healthier and more enjoyable, enhancing their quality of life. Trade opportunities made interaction with other cities and peoples advantageous, while giving rise to competition for resources, rivalries, and warfare.

#InternetHoax #Haiku

Yes, I fell for it.
Should have Snoped James Earl Jones' death.
Glad he's still around.

#RIPJamesEarlJones #Haiku

RIP to James Earl Jones
Voice of Vader, but n'er a
nicer guy you'd meet.

#DoctorWho #Haiku

Building Tardis bed
for my stepdaughter. Project
harder than I thought.

#SemicolonProject #Haiku

New tattoo today.
Semicolon Project for
mental health support.